Electric Vehicle
An electric vehicle, or EV, is a vehicle with one or more electric motors for propulsion. The energy used to propel the vehicle may be obtained from different sources: batteries, supercapacitors, flywheels, land-based generation plants, wind, solar and fuel cells, etc. The BEV, or simply battery electric vehicle is a vehicle that utilizes chemical energy restricted mainly to rechargeable battery packs (see below). The energy used to propel the vehicle may be obtained from several sources, some of them more ecological than others:
Electric vehicles can include electric airplanes, electric boats, and electric motorcycles and scooters. History
Electric motive power started with a small railway operated by a miniature electric motor, built by Thomas Davenport in 1835. In 1838, a Scotsman named Robert Davidson built an electric locomotive that attained a speed of four miles an hour. In England a patent was granted in 1840 for the use of rails as conductors of electric current, and similar American patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in 1847.[1] Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain), Robert Anderson of Scotland invented the first crude electric carriage, powered by non-rechargeable Primary cells.[2] By the 20th century, electric cars and rail transport were commonplace, with commercial electric automobiles having the majority of the market. Over time their general-purpose commercial use reduced to specialist roles, as platform trucks, forklift trucks, tow tractors and urban delivery vehicles, such as the iconic British milk float. Electrified trains were used for coal transport as the motors did not use precious oxygen in the mines. Switzerland's lack of natural fossil resources forced the rapid electrification of their rail network. One of the earliest rechargeable batteries - the Nickel-iron battery - was favored by Edison for use in electric cars. Electric vehicles were among the earliest automobiles, and before the preeminence of light, powerful internal combustion engines, electric automobiles held many vehicle land speed and distance records in the early 1900s. They were produced by Baker Electric, Columbia Electric, Detroit Electric, and others and at one point in history out-sold gasoline-powered vehicles. In the 1930s, National City Lines, which was a partnership of General Motors, Firestone, and Standard Oil of California purchased many electric tram networks across the country to dismantle them and replace them with GM buses. The partnership was convicted for this conspiracy, but the ruling was overturned in a higher court. Electric tram line technologies could be used to recharge BEVs and PHEVs on the highway while the user drives, providing virtually unrestricted driving range. The technology is old and well established (see : Conduit current collection, Nickel-iron battery). The infrastructure has not been built. In January of 1990, General Motors' President introduced its EV concept two-seater, the "Impact," at the Los Angeles Auto Show. That September, the California Air Resources Board mandated major-automaker sales of EVs, in phases starting in 1998. From 1996 to 1998 GM produced 1117 EV1s, 800 of which were made available through 3-year leases. Chrysler, Ford, GM, Honda, Nissan and Toyota also produced limited numbers of EVs for California drivers. In 2003, upon the expiration of EV1 leases, GM crushed them. The crushing has variously been attributed to 1) the auto industry's successful Federal Court challenge to California's Zero-emissions vehicle mandate, 2) a federal regulation requiring GM to produce and maintain spare parts for the few thousands EV1s and 3) the success of the Oil and Auto industries' media campaign to reduce public acceptance of electric vehicles. 
A movie made on the subject in 2005-2006 was titled Who Killed the Electric Car? and released theatrically by Sony Pictures Classics in 2006. The film explores the roles of automobile manufacturers, oil industry, the US government, batteries, hydrogen vehicles, and consumers, and each of their roles in limiting the deployment and adoption of this technology. Honda, Nissan and Toyota also repossessed and crushed most of their EVs, which, like the GM EV1s, had been available only by closed-end lease. After public protests, Toyota sold 200 of its RAV EVs to eager buyers; they now sell, five years later, at over their original forty-thousand-dollar price. Energy sources
Chemical energy is a common independent energy source. Chemical energy is converted to electrical energy, which is then regulated and fed to the drive motors. Chemical energy is usually in the form of diesel or petrol (gasoline). The liquid fuels are usually converted into electricity by an electrical generator powered by an internal combustion engine or other heat engine. This approach is known as diesel-electric or gasoline-electric hybrid locomotion. These engines still produce greenhouse gases, though typically less than conventional petroleum vehicles[3][4], and can be combined with regenerative braking systems for more efficiency. Nowadays batteries, supercapacitors and flywheel energy storage are on-board rechargeable energy storage system (RESS). By avoiding an intermediate mechanical step, the energy conversion efficiency is dramatically improved over the chemical-thermal-mechanical-electrical-mechanical process already discussed. This is due to the higher carnot efficiency through directly oxidizing the fuel and by avoiding several unnecessary energy conversions. Furthermore, electro-chemical batteries conversions are easy to reverse, allowing electrical energy to be stored in chemical form. Another form of chemical to electrical conversion is fuel cells, projected for future use. For especially large electric vehicles, such as submarines, the chemical energy of the diesel-electric can be replaced by a nuclear reactor. The nuclear reactor usually provides heat, which drives a steam turbine, which drives a generator, which is then fed to the propulsion. This energy produces nuclear waste and nuclear risk. Electric motorThe power of a vehicle electric motor, as in other vehicles, is measured in kW. 100 kW is roughly equivalent to 134 horsepower. Large-scale electric transport: energy and motors
Most large electric transport systems are powered by stationary sources of electricity that are directly connected to the vehicles through wires. Due to the extra infrastructure and difficulty in handling arbitrary travel, most directly connected vehicles are owned publicly or by large companies. These forms of transportation are covered in more detail in metros, trams, electric locomotives, and trolleybuses. In the systems above motion is provided by a rotary electric motor. However, it is possible to "unroll" the motor to drive directly against a special matched track. These linear motors are used in maglev trains which float above the rails supported by magnetic levitation. This allows for almost no rolling resistance of the vehicle and no mechanical wear and tear of the train or track. Levitation and forward motion are two independent effects; the forward motive force normally requires external power, although some types, such as Inductrack, achieve levitation at low speeds without any. In addition to the high-performance control systems needed, switching and curving of the tracks becomes difficult with linear motors, which to date has restricted their operations to high-speed point to point services. Small scale electric vehicles
Some bicycles have been converted to electric power with a small battery and a small electric motor, some even have solar panels that are folded out when the vehicle is at rest. Small scale electric vehicles include electric cars, light trucks, neighborhood electric vehicles, motorcycles, motorized bicycles, electric scooters , golf carts, milk floats, forklifts and similar vehicles. Issues regarding electric vehiclesAlthough electric vehicles have few direct emissions, all rely on energy created through electricity generation which will emit pollution unless it is from a renewable source. If a large proportion of private vehicles were to convert to plug-in electricity, the existing powerplant infrastructure would be nearly sufficient, but there would still be a significant need for additional resources (and emissions) in generation and transmission, assuming most charging occurred overnight using the most efficient off-peak base load sources.[5] Electromagnetic radiation from high performance electrical motors has been claimed to be associated with some human ailments[citation needed]. Electric motors can be shielded within a metallic Faraday's cage, but this adds weight to the vehicle and it is not conclusive that all electromagnetic radiation can be contained. Issues with batteries
All types of batteries today have lower energy density than liquid fuels. However, if an average vehicle travels about 200 km (125 miles) per day, then it is possible for this energy to be stored in a battery pack using an affordable battery chemistry such as NiMH. The current price-performance of affordable battery technology is best suited to medium-range EVs. On an energy basis, the cost of electricity is a quarter as much as liquid fuel. Most EVs use batteries, which have an environmental impact through their construction, use, disposal or recycling. On the bright side, vehicle battery recycling rates top 95% in the United States. Deep-cycle lead batteries are expensive and have a shorter life than the vehicle itself, typically needing replacement every 3 years. Nowadays, however, nearly all new EVs incorporate less-toxic NiMH or Lithium battery packs, which will be valued in case the batteries need to be exchanged. Despite the higher energy efficiency, electro-chemical vehicles have been beset by a technical issue which has prevented them from replacing the more cumbersome heat engines: energy storage. Fuel cells are fragile, sensitive to contamination, and require external reactants such as hydrogen. Batteries currently used are either not mass-produced, leading to high per-unit prices, or end up being a significant (25%-50%) portion of the final vehicle mass, in the case of conventional lead-acid technology. Both have lower energy and power density than petroleum fuels. The efficiency and storage capacity of the current generation of common deep cycle lead acid batteries decreases with lower temperatures, and diverting power to run a heating coil reduces efficiency and range by up to 40%[citation needed]. Recent advances in battery efficiency, capacity, materials, safety, toxicity and durability are likely to allow these superior characteristics to be applied in car-sized EVs. Charging and operation of batteries typically results in the emission of hydrogen, oxygen and sulfur, which are naturally occurring and normally harmless if properly vented. Early Citicar owners discovered that, if not vented properly, unpleasant sulfur smells would leak into the cabin immediately after charging. Lead-acid batteries have been re-engineered by Firefly Energy, both reducing weight and increasing longevity. Firefly is expected market lightweight vehicle batteries, either directly or through manufacturing partners in 2008. NiMH batteries put into Toyota RAV4 EVs are still performing well after 100,000 miles, after almost a decade of service. Lithium batteries power the Tesla Roadster to be delivered in 2008, and are expected to be incorporated into the Chevrolet Volt and a dozen other highway-capable EVs to be sold within a few more years, provided that certain technical difficulties can be overcome. Advantages of electric vehiclesElectric motors are mechanically very simple, and release almost no air pollutants at the place where they are operated. Electric motors often achieve 90% energy conversion efficiency[6]over the full range of speeds and power output and can be precisely controlled. They can also be combined with regenerative braking systems that have the ability to convert movement energy back into stored electricity. This can be used to reduce the wear on brake systems (and consequent brake pad dust) and reduce the total energy requirement of a trip, especially effective for start-and-stop city use. They can be finely controlled and provide high torque from rest, unlike internal combustion engines, and do not need gears to match power curves. This removes the need for gearboxes and torque converters. Another advantage is that electric vehicles typically have less vibration and noise pollution than a vehicle powered by an internal combustion engine, whether it is at rest or in motion. Incentives
USAQualifying electric vehicles purchased new are eligible for a one-time federal tax credit that equals 10% of the cost of the vehicle up to $4,000, provided under Section 179A of the Energy Policy Act of 1992; it was extended through 2007 by the Working Families Tax Relief Act of 2004. A tax deduction of up to $100,000 per location is available for qualified electric vehicle recharging property used in a trade or business. Other incentives: http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/laws/incen_laws.html#fed European UnionDirective 2006/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2006 on energy end-use efficiency and energy services includes measures to promote efficient vehicles. AVERE has a table summarizing the taxation and incentives for these vehicles in the different European countries, related to state subsidies, reduction of VAT and other taxes, insurance facilities, parking and charging facilities (including free recharging on street or in the parkings), EV imposed by law and banned circulation for petroleum cars, permission to use bus lanes and toll free on highways, between others.[7] Estimated number of electric vehiclesThe Energy Information Administration (EIA) estimates that were 55,852 Full-Electric Vehicles (FEV) in 2004, with an annual growth rate of 39.1 % (excluding in this estimation electric hybrids).[8] ProductionEuropean UnionPortugal and SpainPortugal and Spain want to create the first green car in Iberia, hoping to generate 150 million euros worth of investment and 800 new jobs in the region's struggling motor industry. The green car, which could be powered by electricity. The Mobi-green car, as the vehicle is named, is being developed by two automotive research centres in Portugal and Spain using funds from both the public and private sectors. [9] Future
Several start-up companies, like Tesla Motors, Commuter Cars and Phoenix Motorcars, will have powerful battery-electric vehicles available to the public in 2008. Battery and energy storage technology is advancing rapidly. Electric cars are perfectly useful as second household vehicles for short and medium distance trips of 100 to 250 miles per charge. The range issue will be improved by technologies such as Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles which are capable of using traditional fuels for unlimited range. General Motors plans sales in 2011 of its plug-in hybrid Chevrolet Volt, which uses a small internal combustion engine hooked to an electrical generator to maintain charge in the batteries. GM calls it an electric vehicle with a "range extender", that can extend the range up to 640 miles. Improved long term energy storage and nano batteriesThere have been several developments which could bring electric vehicles outside their current fields of application, as scooters, golf cars, neighborhood vehicles, in industrial operational yards and indoor operation. First, advances in lithium-based battery technology, in large part driven by the consumer electronics industry, allow full-sized, highway-capable electric vehicles to be propelled as far on a single charge as conventional cars go on a single tank of gasoline. Lithium batteries have been made safe, can be recharged in minutes instead of hours, and now last longer than the typical vehicle. The production cost of these lighter, higher-capacity lithium batteries is gradually decreasing as the technology matures and production volumes increase. Introduction of Battery Management and Intermediate StorageAnother improvement is to decouple the electric motor from the battery through electronic control, employing ultra-capacitors to buffer large but short power demands and regenerative braking energy. The development of new cell types combined with intelligent cell management improved both weak points mentioned above. The cell management involves not only monitoring the health of the cells but also a redundant cell configuration (one more cell than needed). With sophisticated switched wiring it is possible to condition one cell while the rest are on duty. Electric Vehicle OrganizationsWorldwideThe World Electric Vehicle Association (WEVA), chairman Hisashi Ishitani, formed by:
North America
EuropePatents
See also
References
External links
The BEV, or simply battery electric vehicle is a vehicle that utilizes chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs, and electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs). Vehicles using both electric motors and ICEs (hybrid electric vehicles) are examples of hybrid vehicles, and are not considered pure BEVs because they operate in a charge-sustaining mode. Hybrid vehicles with batteries that can be charged externally to displace some or all of their ICE power and gasoline fuel are called plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and are pure BEVs during their charge-depleting mode. BEVs include automobiles, light trucks, and neighborhood electric vehicles. BEVs were among the earliest automobiles. BEVs produce no exhaust fumes, and minimal pollution if charged from most forms of renewable energy. Many are capable of acceleration exceeding that of conventional vehicles, are quiet, and do not produce noxious fumes. BEVs may reduce dependence on petroleum and decrease greenhouse gas emissions, depending on how their electricity is produced. Historically, BEVs and PHEVs have had issues with high battery costs, limited travel distance between battery recharging, charging time, and battery lifespan, which have limited widespread adoption. Ongoing battery technology advancements have addressed many of these problems; many models have recently been prototyped, and a handful of future production models have been announced. Toyota, Honda, Ford and General Motors all produced BEVs in the 90s in order to comply with the California Air Resources Board's Zero Emission Vehicle Mandate. The major US automobile manufacturers have been accused of deliberately sabotaging their electric vehicle production efforts.[1][2] Battery EVs may be cheaper to make and maintain than internal combustion engine vehicles because they have many fewer parts[citation needed]. Using regenerative braking, a feature which is standard on many electric and hybrid vehicles, a significant portion of energy may be recovered.[3][4] In general terms a battery electric vehicle is a rechargeable electric vehicle. Other examples of rechargeable electric vehicles are ones that store electricity in ultracapacitors, or in a flywheel.
Relation with hybrid vehiclesVehicles using both electric motors and ICEs are examples of hybrid vehicles, and are not considered pure BEVs (also called all-electric vehicles) because they operate in a charge-sustaining mode. Hybrid vehicles with batteries that can be charged externally to displace some or all of their ICE power and gasoline fuel are called plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and are pure BEVs during their charge-depleting mode. The coming Chevrolet Volt is of this type. If batteries cannot be charged externally, the vehicles are called regular hybrids. History
The electric car was among some of the earliest automobiles — small electric vehicles predate the Otto cycle upon which Diesel (diesel engine) and Benz (gasoline engine) based the automobile. Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain), Scottish businessman Robert Anderson invented the first crude electric carriage. Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of Groningen, the Netherlands, designed the small-scale electric car, built by his assistant Christopher Becker in 1835.[5] The improvement of the storage battery, by Frenchmen Gaston Plante in 1865 and Camille Faure in 1881, paved the way for electric vehicles to flourish. An electric-powered two-wheel cycle was demonstrated at the World Exhibition 1867 in Paris by the Austrian inventor Franz Kravogl. France and Great Britain were the first nations to support the widespread development of electric vehicles.[6] In November 1881 French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled automobile at the International Exhibition of Electricity in Paris.[7] Just prior to 1900, before the pre-eminence of powerful but polluting internal combustion engines, electric automobiles held many speed and distance records. Among the most notable of these records was the breaking of the 100 km/h (60 mph) speed barrier, by Camille Jenatzy on April 29, 1899 in his 'rocket-shaped' vehicle Jamais Contente, which reached a top speed of 105.88 km/h (65.79 mph). BEVs, produced in the USA by Anthony Electric, Baker, Detroit, Edison, Studebaker, and others during the early 20th century for a time out-sold gasoline-powered vehicles. Due to technological limitations and the lack of transistor-based electric technology, the top speed of these early electric vehicles was limited to about 32 km/h (20 mph). These vehicles were successfully sold as town cars to upper-class customers and were often marketed as suitable vehicles for women drivers due to their clean, quiet and easy operation. Electrics did not require hand-cranking to start. The introduction of the electric starter by Cadillac in 1913 simplified the task of starting the internal combustion engine, formerly difficult and sometimes dangerous. This innovation contributed to the downfall of the electric vehicle, as did the mass-produced and relatively inexpensive Ford Model T, which had been produced since 1908.[8] Internal-combustion vehicles advanced technologically, ultimately becoming more practical than — and out-performing — their electric-powered competitors. Another blow to BEVs in the USA was the loss of Edison's direct current (DC) electric power transmission system in the War of Currents. This deprived BEV users of a convenient source of DC electricity to recharge their batteries.[dubious ] As the technology of rectifiers was still in its infancy, changing alternating current to DC required a costly rotary converter. Battery electric vehicles became popular for some limited range applications. Forklifts were BEVs when they were introduced in 1923 by Yale[2]; many battery electric fork lifts are still produced. BEV golf carts have been available for many years, including early models by Lektra in 1954.[3] Their popularity led to their use as neighborhood electric vehicles; larger versions are becoming popular and increasingly ruled "street legal". By the late 1930s, the electric automobile industry had completely disappeared, with battery-electric traction being limited to niche applications, such as certain industrial vehicles. A thorough examination into the social and technological reasons for the failure of BEVs is to be found in Taking Charge: The Electric Automobile in America[4] by Michael Brian Schiffer. The 1947 invention of the point-contact transistor marked the beginning of a new era for BEV technology. Within a decade, Henney Coachworks had joined forces with National Union Electric Company, the makers of Exide batteries, to produce the first modern electric car based on transistor technology, the Henney Kilowatt, produced in 36-volt and 72-volt configurations. The 72-volt models had a top speed approaching 96 km/h (60 mph) and could travel nearly an hour on a single charge. Despite the improved practicality of the Henney Kilowatt over previous electric cars, it was too expensive, and production was terminated in 1961. Even though the Henney Kilowatt never reached mass production volume, their transistor-based electric technology paved the way for modern EVs. BEV concept cars continued to appear, such as the General Motors "Electrovair" (1966) and "Electrovette" (1976). At the 1990 Los Angeles Auto Show, GM President Roger Smith unveiled the "Impact" BEV, the precursor to the EV1, promising that GM would build BEVs for the public. Nine months later, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) mandated BEV sales by major automakers. In response, makers developed BEVs including the Chrysler TEVan, Ford Ranger EV pickup truck, GM EV1 and S10 EV pickup, Honda EV Plus sedan, Nissan lithium-battery Altra EV miniwagon and Toyota RAV4 EV. Automakers refused to properly promote or sell their BEVs, allowed consumers to drive them only by closed-end lease and, along with oil groups, fought the mandate. Chrysler, GM and some GM dealers sued in Federal court; California soon neutered its ZEV Mandate. After public protests by EV drivers' groups upset by the repossession of their BEVs, Toyota offered the last 328 RAV4-EVs for sale to the general public during six months (ending on November 22, 2002). All other BEVs, with minor exceptions, were withdrawn from the market and destroyed by their manufacturers. To its credit, Toyota not only supports the 328 Toyota RAV4-EV in the hands of the general public, still all running at this date, but also supports hundreds in fleet usage. From time to time, Toyota RAV4-EVs come up for sale on the used market and command prices sometimes over 60 thousand dollars. These are highly prized by solar homeowners, who charge their cars from their solar electric rooftop systems. Present and futureAs of July, 2006, there were between 60,000 and 76,000 low-speed, battery powered vehicles in use in the US, up from about 56,000 in 2004, according to Electric Drive Transportation Association estimates.[9] There are now over 100,000 NEVs on US streets. 
In 2004, several Silicon Valley entrepreneurs (Elon Musk, known for co-founding Paypal and founding SpaceX, and Martin Eberhard) started Tesla Motors. In 2006 they announced the production of the Tesla Roadster. The Roadster, the design of which is based on the Lotus Elise, uses Lithium-Ion batteries rather than the lead-acid batteries which had previously been predominant in small-maker BEVs. The vehicle uses 6831 li-ion batteries to travel 245 miles per charge, an equivalent fuel efficiency of 135 mpg (U.S.) (1.74 L/100 km), yet accelerates from 0-60 in under 4 seconds on its way to a top speed of 135 mph (210 km/h). Tesla is set to begin deliveries of Roadsters in early 2008. In December, 2007, Fortune media reported on eleven new companies planning to offer highway-capable BEVs within a few years. Aptera Motors plans to sell both electric and hybrid vehicles in late 2008. Mitsubishi will sell its iMiev BEV beginning in 2009, with Subaru and others to soon follow. The Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) will be available by 2011. Regulation in CaliforniaSince the late 1980s, electric vehicles have been promoted in the US through the use of tax credits. BEVs are the most common form of what is defined by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) as zero emission vehicle (ZEV) passenger automobiles, because they produce no emissions while being driven. The CARB had set progressive quotas for sales of ZEVs, but most were withdrawn after lobbying and a lawsuit, by auto manufacturers complaining that BEVs were economically infeasible due to an alleged "lack of consumer demand". Most of this lobbying influences are shown in a documentary, called Who Killed the Electric Car?. The California program was designed by the CARB to reduce air pollution and not specifically to promote electric vehicles. Under pressure from various manufactures, CARB replaced the zero emissions requirement with a combined requirement of a very small number of ZEVs to promote research and development, and a much larger number of partial zero-emissions vehicles (PZEVs), an administrative designation for a super ultra low emissions vehicle (SULEV), which emit about ten percent of the pollution of ordinary low emissions vehicles and are also certified for zero evaporative emissions. While effective in reaching the air pollution goals projected for the zero emissions requirement, the market effect was to permit the major manufacturers to quickly terminate their BEV programs and crush the vehicles. Selected production vehicles
Selected list of battery electric vehicles include (in chronological order):[10]
UseIn the United StatesThe following chart and table are based on Department of Energy tables on Alternatives to Traditional Transportation Fuels 2005, from table V1 and from the Historical Data. Figures for electric vehicles include Low-Speed Vehicles (LSVs), which are "four-wheeled motor vehicles whose top speed is between 20 and 25 miles per hour [32 to 40 km/h]...to be used in residential areas, planned communities, industrial sites, and other areas with low density traffic, and low-speed zones."[11] LSVs, more commonly known as neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs), were defined in 1998 by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 500, which required safety features such as windshields and seat belts, but not doors or side walls.[12][13] 
Number of battery electric vehicles in use each year (red), and year-to-year percentage increase (blue), per table at left
Comparison to internal combustion vehicles
BEVs have become much less common than internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). Therefore, it is often helpful to consider many aspects of BEVs in comparison to ICEVs. CostWhile gasoline powered cars typically average 10 to 50 mpg (5-23 L/100 km), electric cars can average the equivalent of 200 mpg (1.5 L/100 km) with a typical cost of two to four cents per mile. In contrast, gasoline-powered ICEVs currently cost about four to six times as much.[14] The total cost of ownership for modern BEVs depends primarily on the cost of the batteries,[15] the type and capacity of which determine several factors such as travel range, top speed, battery lifetime and recharging time; several trade-offs exist. Batteries are usually the most expensive component of BEVs, though the price per kilowatt-hour of charge has fallen rapidly in recent years,[citation needed] and batteries from old or wrecked electric cars can be bought for battery-to-grid mini-power plants. The cost of battery manufacture is substantial, but increasing returns to scale may serve to lower their cost when BEVs are manufactured on the scale of modern internal combustion vehicles. Since the late 1990s, advances in battery technologies have been driven by skyrocketing demand for laptop computers and mobile phones, with consumer demand for more features, larger, brighter displays, and longer battery time driving research and development in the field. The BEV marketplace has reaped the benefits of these advances. Some batteries can be leased or rented instead of bought (see Think Nordic). One article indicates that 10 kW·h of battery power provides a range of about 20 miles (32 km) in a Toyota Prius, but this is not a primary source, and does not fit with estimates elsewhere of about 5 mi/(kW·h).[16] The Chevy Volt is expected to use 50 MPG when running on the auxiliary power unit (a small onboard generator) - at 33% thermodynamic efficiency that would mean 12 kW·h for 50 miles (80 km), or about 240 watt hours per mile. For prices of 1 kW·h of charge with various different battery technologies, see the "Energy/Consumer Price" column in the "Comparison of battery types" section in the rechargeable battery article. Ownership costs Initial costs for a battery electric vehicle can be higher, but overall cost of ownership is lower[citation needed], simply because electricity costs less to create than gasoline[citation needed]. While the initial cost can be over 30,000US, the cost of electricity to charge the battery costs a few cents per mile, whereas most gasoline cars cost over 10 cents per mile. Thus, initial cost is higher, but overall cost is lower[citation needed]. In the UK other changes in ownership costs include vehicle excise duty or road tax. Electric vehicles are now exempt and so BEV owners will save around £100 per year compared with an average conventional car. There remains some uncertainty about annual depreciation rates and resale values for BEVs due to the unknown length of battery-life and the low demand for battery electrics compared to other green car types. As BEVs lose their value faster than conventional cars depreciation rates are likely to be higher than for a conventional car at this time. In the UK, BEV users who install additional recharging equipment will face additional financial penalties. Costs per standard charge point are around £500-£2000, depending on the difficulty of installation. Fully installed fast-chargers will cost between £10,000 and £30,000 per point although this depends on whether an on-board or off-board fast-charging system is used. Running costs Some running costs are significantly less for BEVs than for conventional cars. In particular, fuel costs are very low due to the competitive price of electricity - fuel duty is zero-rated - and to the high efficiency of the vehicles themselves. Taking into account the high fuel economy of battery electric cars, the fuel costs can be as low as 1.0-2.5p per mile (depending on the tariff). For a typical 10,000 miles per year, switching from a conventional car to a battery electric could save around £800 in fuel costs. However if the battery hire is considered a running cost, then the saving on fuel is cancelled out by the monthly battery leasing cost. In the New York City metropolitan area, the cost to run a battery (non-hybrid) electric car using standard deep-cycle lead acid marine-type batteries charged from the mains is about 3 times more than a conventional gasoline car. BEV operating costs can be directly compared to the equivalent operating costs of a gasoline-powered vehicle. A gallon of gasoline contains about 36.4 kW·h of energy, however an efficient gasoline engine is only able to convert about 33% of this energy to do 'work', leaving 12 kW·h of useful energy. To calculate the cost of the electrical equivalent of a gallon of gasoline, multiply the utility cost per kW·h by 12. To calculate the equivalent mileage (U.S. gallon) of a BEV, divide 12 kW·h/gal by the energy efficiency in kW·h/mi, to get the equivalent miles per gallon. For example, if a BEV owner's electricity rate is $0.10 per kW·h, and the BEV gets 0.20 kW·h/mi, the BEV owner is paying two cents per mile. Comparing the cost of the electricity to a price of $3.00/gal of gasoline, the BEV would be getting the equivalent of 150 MPG. If the gasoline car was just as efficient (0.20 kW·h/mi), it would be getting 60 MPG, or five cents per mile. Energy efficiency and carbon dioxide emissionsProduction and conversion BEVs typically use 0.17 to 0.37 kilowatt-hours per mile (0.1–0.23 kW·h/km).[17][18] Nearly half of this power consumption is due to inefficiencies in charging the batteries. Tesla Motors indicates that the well to wheels power consumption of their li-ion powered vehicle is 0.215 kW·h/mi. The US fleet average of 23 miles per gallon of gasoline is equivalent to 1.58 kW·h/mi and the 70 mpg (U.S.) Honda Insight uses 0.52 kW·h/mi (assuming 36.4 kW·h per US gallon of gasoline), so hybrid electric vehicles are relatively energy efficient, and battery electric vehicles are much more energy efficient. A | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
