Definition
Allelopathy is a biological phenomenon that is characteristic of some plants, algae, bacteria, coral and fungi by which they produce certain biochemicals that influence the growth and development of other organisms.
Topics of Interest
The biochemicals, called allelochemicals can have a beneficial or detrimental effect on neighbouring organisms. They are not required for metabolism, that is the primary life processes (growth, development and reproduction) of the allelopathic organism, thus they are secondary metabolites. The beneficial effect can be called positive allelopathy, the detrimental effect negative allelopathy.
The process, by which a plant acquires more of the available resources (such as nutrients, water or light) from the environment without any chemical action on the surrounding plants is called resource competition. This process is not negative allelopathy, but both processes can act together to enhance the survival rate of the plant species.
Although allelopathic science is a relatively new field of study, there exists convincing evidence that allelopathic interactions between plants play a crucial role in both natural and manipulated ecosystems. These interactions are undoubtedly an important factor in determining species distribution and abundance within some plant communities. Allelopathic interactions are also thought to be an important factor in the success of many invasive plants. For specific examples, see Spotted Knapweed (Centaurea maculosa), Garlic Mustard (Alliaria petiolata), and Nutsedge.
The term allelopathy, from the Greek words allelo and pathy (meaning mutual harm or suffering), was first used in 1937 by the Austrian professor Hans Molisch in the book Der Einfluss einer Pflanze auf die andere - Allelopathie published in German. He used the term to describe biochemical interactions that inhibit the growth of neighbouring plants, by another plant. In 1971 Whittaker and Fenny in an influential paper published in the journal Science, defined Allelochemics as all chemical interactions among organisms. In 1984 Elroy Leon Rice in his monograph on allelopathy enlarged the definition to include all direct positive or negative effects of a plant on another plant or on micro-orgamisms by the liberation of biochemicals into the environment. Over the next ten years the term was used by other researchers to describe broader chemical interactions between organisms, and by 1996 the International Allelopathy Society defined allelopathy as "Any process involving secondary metabolites produced by plants, algae, bacteria and fungi that influences the growth and development of agriculture and biological systems." In more recent times, plant researches have begun to switch back to the original definition of substances that are produced by one plant that inhibit another plant. Confusing the issue more, zoologists have borrowed the term to describe chemical interactions between invertebrates like corals and sponges.
Examples of allelopathy: One of the most studied aspects of allelopathy is the role of allelopathy in agriculture. Current research is focused on the effects of weeds on crops, crops on weeds, and crops on crops. This research furthers the possibility of using allelochemicals as growth regulators and natural herbicides, to promote sustainable agriculture. A number of such allelochemicals are commercially available or in the process of large-scale manufacture. For example, Leptospermone is a purported allelochemical in lemon bottlebrush (Callistemon citrinus). Although it was found to be too weak as a commercial herbicide, a chemical analog of it, mesotrione (tradename Callisto), was found to be effective. It is sold to control broadleaf weeds in corn but also seems to be an effective control for crabgrass in lawns. Sheeja (1993) reported the allelopathic interaction of the weeds Chromolaena odorata (Eupatorium odoratum) and Lantana camara on selected major crops.
A famous case of purported allelopathy is in desert shrubs. One of the most widely known early examples was Salvia leucophylla, because it was on the cover of the journal Science in 1964. Bare zones around the shrubs were hypothesized to be caused by volatile terpenes emitted by the shrubs. However, like many allelopathy studies, it was based on artificial lab experiments and unwarranted extrapolations to natural ecosystems. In 1970, Science published a study where caging the shrubs to exclude rodents and birds allowed grass to grow in the bare zones. A detailed history of this interesting story can be found in Halsey 2004.
Allelopathy has been shown to play a crucial role in forests, influencing the composition of the vegetation growth, and also provides an explanation for the patterns of forest regeneration. The black walnut (Juglans nigra) produces the allelochemical juglone, which affects some species greatly while others not at all. Eucalyptus leaf litter and root exudates are allelopathic for certain soil microbes and plant species. The tree of heaven, (Ailanthus altissima) produces allelochemicals in its roots that inhibit the growth of many plants. The pace of evaluating allelochemicals released by higher plants in nature has greatly accelerated, with promising results in field screening.
Many crop cultivars show strong allelopathic properties, of which rice (Oryza sativa) has been most studied. Rice allelopathy depends on variety and origin: Japonica rice is more allelopathic than Indica and Japonica-Indica hybrid. More recently, critical review on rice allelopathy and the possibility for weed management reported that allelopathic characteristics in rice are quantitatively inherited and several allelopathy-involved traits have been identified.
Garlic mustard is an invasive plant species in North American temperate forests. Its success may be partly due to its excretion of an unidentified allelochemical that interferes with mutualisms between native tree roots and their mycorrhizal fungi.
A study of Kochia scoparia (a shrub native to Eurasia) in northern Montana by two high school students showed that when Kochia precedes spring wheat (Triticum aestivum), it reduces the spring wheat's growth. Effects included delayed emergence, decreased rate of growth, decreased final height and decreased average vegetative dry weight of spring wheat plants. A larger study later showed that Kochia seems to exhibit allelopathy on various crops in northern Montana.
The need to maximize the space between individuals generally arises from competition for a resource such as moisture or nutrients, or as a result of direct social interactions between individuals within the population, such as territoriality. For example, penguins often exhibit uniform spacing by aggressively defending their territory among their neighbors. Plants also exhibit uniform distributions, like the creosote bushes in the southwestern region of the United States. Salvia leucophylla is a species in California that naturally grows in uniform spacing. This flower releases chemicals called terpenes which inhibit the growth of other plants around it and results in uniform distribution. This is an example of allelopathy, which is the release of chemicals from plant parts by leaching, root exudation, volatilization, residue decomposition and other processes. Allelopathy can have beneficial, harmful, or neutral effects on surrounding organisms. Some allelochemicals even have selective affects on surrounding organisms; for example, the tree species Leucaena leucocephala exudes a chemical that inhibits the growth of other plants but not those of its own species, and thus can affect the distribution of specific rival species. Allelopathy usually results in uniform distributions, and its potential to suppress weeds is being researched. Farming and agricultural practices often create uniform distribution in areas where it would not previously exist, for example, orange trees growing in rows on a plantation.
Source: Wikipedia (All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License and Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License.)
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